AIOU 9061 Sociolinguistics Solved Assignment 1 Spring 2025
AIOU 9061 Assignment 1
Q1. Explain the following:
i. Sociolinguistics and its scope
ii. Dialect vs. Accent
i. Sociolinguistics and its scope
What is sociolinguistics?
Language is not just a tool for communication—it is deeply intertwined with society, identity, power, and culture. Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics that investigates the social aspects of language, examining how language varies and evolves due to factors such as region, class, gender, and historical context.
What is the scope of sociolinguistics?
Sociolinguistics covers various aspects of language in society, including:
Language variation and change: Sociolinguists study regional dialects, sociolects, pidgins, creoles, and language evolution over time.
Bilingualism and multilingualism: This includes code-switching, diglossia, and language contact in diverse communities.
Language and identity: Examining how accents, ethnolinguistic identity, and language discrimination shape social perceptions.
Language policy and planning: Governments regulate language through official language selection, education policies, and language preservation efforts.
Discourse and communication styles: Exploring gender-based language differences, conversational norms, and power dynamics in speech.
Language and power: Understanding political rhetoric, media language, and legal discourse to analyze social hierarchies.
Why is sociolinguistics important?
Sociolinguistics is essential for various fields:
Education and literacy: Helps improve language teaching and multilingual education strategies.
Technology and AI: Plays a role in natural language processing and voice recognition technologies.
Cultural and social integration: Supports endangered language preservation and cross-cultural interactions.
Globalization and language change: Examines the impact of digital communication, internet slang, and language adaptation.
Conclusion: Sociolinguistics bridges the gap between language and society, offering insights into human communication and promoting inclusivity.
ii Dialect vs. Accent
What is a Dialect?
A dialect refers to a variety of a language that is unique to a specific group of people based on geographical, social, or cultural factors. It involves distinct vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and even sentence structure, making it a comprehensive variation of a language.
What is an Accent?
An accent, on the other hand, primarily refers to differences in pronunciation within a language. It does not typically affect the vocabulary or grammar of the language but rather the way words are spoken. Accents are influenced by native language background, region, and even individual speech habits.
Key Differences Between Dialects and Accents
While both dialects and accents contribute to linguistic diversity, they differ in significant ways. A dialect encompasses changes in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, whereas an accent is limited to pronunciation differences.
Factors Affecting Dialects
Dialects develop due to historical migration patterns, geographical isolation, social identity, and linguistic evolution. Over time, local speech communities adopt unique linguistic features that distinguish them from others.
Factors Affecting Accents
Accents emerge due to exposure to different languages, regional influences, and phonetic adaptations. Accents can also be shaped by language learning experiences, making them fluid over time.
Examples of Dialects
For example, American English and British English are dialects of the English language. They not only have pronunciation differences but also distinct words and grammatical rules.
Examples of Accents
Accents include the difference in pronunciation between a person from Texas and someone from New York, even though both speak American English.
Social Perceptions of Dialects and Accents
Dialects and accents often carry social and cultural significance. Some dialects are associated with prestige, while others may face unfair stigmatization.
Conclusion
Both dialects and accents enrich the linguistic diversity of a language, shaping communication and identity. Understanding the distinction between the two helps appreciate how language evolves across regions and communities.
Q2. Write short notes on the following:
i. Pidgin
Pidgin in the English language refers to simplified forms of communication that develop when speakers of different native languages need to interact but do not share a common language. These pidgins often borrow vocabulary and grammar from English while incorporating elements from other languages.
Some well-known English-based pidgins include:
Nigerian Pidgin – Widely spoken in Nigeria, blending English with local languages.
Tok Pisin – Used in Papua New Guinea, derived from English but with unique grammatical structures.
Hawaiian Pidgin – A creole spoken in Hawaii, originally developed as a pidgin among plantation workers.
Pidgins typically serve as lingua francas, helping diverse communities communicate for trade, work, or social interaction. Over time, some pidgins evolve into creole languages, becoming native languages for a population.
ii. Creole
English-based Creole languages, which evolved from English but developed their own distinct grammar and vocabulary. These languages typically emerged in colonial settings where English mixed with local languages, often due to trade, migration, or slavery.
Some well-known English-based Creole languages include:
- Jamaican Patois: Spoken in Jamaica.
- Belizean Creole: Spoken in Belize.
- Bajan Creole: Spoken in Barbados.
- Sierra Leone Krio: Spoken in Sierra Leone.
- Tok Pisin: Spoken in Papua New Guinea.
These languages are not just dialects of English they are fully developed languages with unique structures and expressions. Over time, they have become native languages for many communities.
iii. Diglossia
Diglossia is a fascinating aspect of language! It occurs when two distinct varieties of the same language exist within a community, each serving different purposes. The "high" (H) variety is used in formal settings like education, literature, and official communication, while the "low" (L) variety is spoken in daily interactions.
Examples of diglossia:
- Urdu and English in Pakistan: Urdu serves as the national and literary language (H), while English is used in government and education.
- Arabic: Modern Standard Arabic (H) vs. regional dialects (L).
- Swiss German: Standard German (H) vs. Swiss dialects (L).
Impact of diglossia:
Diglossia can shape identity, social mobility, and even language evolution!
iv. Idiolect
Idiolect is the distinct and personal way in which an individual speaks. It reflects a combination of linguistic influences, including regional dialects, sociolects, education, personal experiences, and even individual preferences in vocabulary and pronunciation. Each person develops their own idiolect based on their environment and interactions, shaping the way they express themselves.
How does idiolect differ from dialect?
Unlike dialects, which are shared among groups of people, an idiolect is unique to an individual. This means that even within the same community, people have their own variations in speech, influenced by factors such as family background, social class, profession, and exposure to different languages. Over time, a person’s idiolect may evolve due to changes in lifestyle, new social circles, or acquiring additional languages.
Where does idiolect appear in communication?
Idiolect manifests in multiple aspects of communication—word choice, sentence structure, accent, intonation, and even the use of slang or catchphrases. For example, two people speaking the same language may have vastly different ways of conveying the same thought. One might use formal expressions, while another may prefer colloquial language.
What is the significance of idiolect?
The concept of idiolect plays a key role in linguistics and forensic linguistics, where experts analyze speech patterns to identify individuals or study language evolution. Writers and poets often harness their idiolect to craft distinctive literary styles.
How has idiolect evolved in the digital age?
In today’s digital age, idiolect extends beyond spoken language. People develop unique texting styles, social media language, and even email communication habits that reflect their personality. The evolution of idiolect highlights the dynamic nature of human interaction and the deep connection between language and identity.
Why is understanding idiolect important?
Understanding idiolect allows us to appreciate linguistic diversity and the personal nuances that make communication an intimate and expressive experience. In many ways, it is a reflection of one’s identity, shaping how we connect with the world.
Q3. Examine the similarities and differences between Language Change and Language Shift. What factors influence each phenomenon, and what effects do they have on linguistic communities?
Similarities: Both involve transformations in linguistic patterns within communities. They can be influenced by external social, economic, and political factors, leading to changes in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and usage. These are natural linguistic phenomena observed worldwide.
Differences: Language Change refers to the gradual evolution of a language over time, resulting in new dialects, word meanings, or structures. This can be internal (natural linguistic drift) or external (borrowings from other languages). Language Shift occurs when a community gradually abandons its native language in favor of another, often due to migration, colonization, or socioeconomic pressures.
Factors Influencing Each Phenomenon:
Language Change: Contact with other languages (loanwords, code-switching), technological advancements (new terminology), cultural and social trends (slang, expressions), and political influences (language standardization).
Language Shift: Economic opportunities (prestige language adoption), political pressures (language suppression or promotion), migration and urbanization, and education policies favoring one language over another.
Effects on Linguistic Communities: Language Change keeps languages vibrant and adaptable, but may cause generational gaps in understanding as older forms become obsolete. Language Shift can lead to language endangerment and loss of cultural identity, with traditions and histories linked to the language potentially disappearing.
Ultimately, Language Change reflects the organic evolution of linguistic systems, while Language Shift often signals a more abrupt transition with significant sociocultural consequences.
Q4. Examine how language mirrors cultural values. Does a common language among people from diverse cultural backgrounds guarantee mutual understanding? Use examples to support your perspective.
Language is deeply intertwined with cultural values, acting as both a reflection and a carrier of traditions, beliefs, and worldviews. The idioms, metaphors, and expressions within a language often reveal what a society prioritizes, fears, or celebrates. For example, in Japan, the concept of wabi-sabi—appreciating imperfection—reflects a broader cultural value of embracing the beauty of transience and flaws. Similarly, in Arabic, there are numerous expressions related to hospitality and honor, which highlight the importance of communal respect and generosity in Arab culture.
However, simply having a common language does not necessarily guarantee mutual understanding among people from diverse backgrounds. Language conveys more than just words—it carries historical and social nuances that shape interpretation. A shared language can provide a foundation for communication, but differences in cultural norms, gestures, and contextual meaning can still lead to misunderstandings.
Consider English as a global lingua franca. While many people worldwide speak English, the ways in which it is used vary significantly. In the United States, directness is often valued in conversation, whereas in many East Asian cultures, indirect communication and politeness strategies are preferred. This difference can lead to misinterpretation even among fluent English speakers. Similarly, in multilingual countries like India, English serves as a bridge, yet regional dialects and cultural customs influence how words are received.
A common language provides a means for interaction, but true understanding requires cultural sensitivity and awareness.
Q5. Observe and record instances of code-switching and code-mixing in your conversations over two days. Then, answer the following:
a. In what contexts (e.g., home, workplace, social gatherings) did you code-switch or code-mix the most?
b. What were the reasons behind these instances? (e.g., ease of communication, cultural expression, lack of vocabulary, etc.)
c. Identify the languages involved and analyze how switching between them affects the flow of communication.
a. In what contexts (e.g., home, workplace, social gatherings) do people code-switch or code-mix the most?
Code-switching and code-mixing are most likely to occur in multilingual communities and among individuals who are fluent in more than one language. The specific contexts can vary:
- Home: In households where family members speak different languages or have varying levels of fluency, code-switching and code-mixing can be very common. For example, a family might use a heritage language for cultural expressions and the dominant language of their residence for everyday practicalities.
- Workplace: In diverse workplaces, colleagues might code-switch to include everyone in a conversation, to explain technical terms more easily in a specific language, or to build rapport with individuals from different linguistic backgrounds.
- Social Gatherings: Among friends who share multiple linguistic identities, code-switching and code-mixing can be a natural and frequent occurrence, serving as a marker of group identity and solidarity.
- Educational Settings: In bilingual or multilingual classrooms, teachers and students might code-switch for clarification, to manage classroom interactions, or to connect academic concepts with students' linguistic backgrounds.
- Online Communication: In digital spaces like social media or messaging apps, individuals might code-switch or code-mix to reach a broader audience, express themselves more effectively, or create a specific online persona.
b. What are the reasons behind these instances? (e.g., ease of communication, cultural expression, lack of vocabulary, etc.)
Several factors can motivate code-switching and code-mixing:
- Ease of Communication: Sometimes, a particular concept or word might be more readily accessible or easily expressed in one language over another. Speakers might switch to the language where they have better vocabulary or fluency for that specific topic.
- Cultural Expression and Identity: Language is often deeply intertwined with culture and identity. Code-switching and code-mixing can be a way for individuals to express their multiple cultural affiliations and to signal belonging to a particular multilingual group.
- Lack of Vocabulary: In situations where a speaker doesn't know a specific word or phrase in one language, they might borrow it from another language they know. This is more common in code-mixing.
- Emphasis or Clarification: Switching languages can be used to emphasize a point, to clarify something for a particular listener, or to add emotional weight to a statement.
- Social Norms and Accommodation: In some multilingual communities, code-switching might be a common social practice, and individuals might engage in it to fit in or to accommodate the linguistic preferences of their interlocutors.
- Topic Shift: Sometimes, a change in topic can trigger a switch in language, especially if one language is more commonly associated with that particular subject.
- Building Rapport: Speakers might code-switch to establish solidarity or rapport with someone who speaks another language.
c. Identify the languages involved and analyze how switching between them affects the flow of communication.
The impact of code-switching and code-mixing on the flow of communication depends heavily on the listeners' linguistic competence and the context of the interaction.
- Smooth Flow: Among individuals who are proficient in all the languages being used, code-switching and code-mixing can often occur seamlessly and naturally, without hindering comprehension. It can even enrich the conversation by allowing for more nuanced expression and a stronger sense of connection.
- Potential Disruption: However, if listeners are not fluent in all the languages involved, code-switching and code-mixing can lead to misunderstandings, confusion, and a disruption in the flow of communication. It can exclude those who do not understand the switched language and require constant negotiation of meaning.
- Linguistic Landscape: In some multilingual settings, code-switching and code-mixing are so prevalent that they become part of the local linguistic landscape and are generally understood and accepted. In such cases, it might not necessarily disrupt communication among the community members.
- Grammatical Integration: The way in which languages are mixed can also affect the flow. If the switching follows grammatical rules and the borrowed elements are integrated smoothly, the communication is likely to be more fluid. However, if the mixing is grammatically jarring or inconsistent, it can impede understanding.
In conclusion, while I cannot provide personal observations of code-switching and code-mixing, these phenomena are complex and fascinating aspects of multilingual communication, influenced by a variety of social, cultural, and linguistic factors. Their impact on the flow of communication is contingent on the linguistic abilities of the participants and the specific context of the interaction.
AIOU 9061 Sociolinguistics Solved Assignment 2 Spring 2025
AIOU 9061 Assignment 2
Q1. What does language hegemony mean? Examine its effects on linguistic diversity and minority languages.
Language hegemony refers to the dominance of one language over others, often due to political, economic, or cultural influence. It occurs when a particular language becomes the primary medium of communication, education, governance, and media, marginalizing other languages. This phenomenon can be seen globally, where languages like English, Mandarin, or Spanish exert significant influence.
Effects on Linguistic Diversity and Minority Languages:
Erosion of Minority Languages – When a dominant language takes precedence in key areas like education and business, smaller languages may lose speakers over time. Younger generations might opt for the hegemonic language for better opportunities, leading to a decline in native tongues.
Cultural Identity Loss – Language is deeply tied to cultural heritage. As minority languages fade, unique traditions, expressions, and worldviews encoded in these languages may also disappear.
Reduced Intergenerational Transmission – If parents prioritize teaching their children the dominant language for economic or social mobility, minority languages may stop being passed down naturally, threatening their survival.
Limited Representation in Media and Education – Minority languages often struggle for presence in mainstream media, official documentation, and formal education. This lack of institutional support accelerates their decline.
Global Homogenization of Thought – Linguistic diversity enriches perspectives, but language hegemony can lead to uniformity in knowledge production, favoring the dominant language's worldview while sidelining others.
To counter language hegemony, efforts like language preservation programs, multilingual education policies, and cultural revitalization movements can help sustain linguistic diversity.
Q2. Discuss the connection between language, power, and identity. In what ways does language function as a tool for both empowerment and marginalization within social settings? Illustrate with examples.
Language as a Tool of Empowerment
Social Mobility and Education: Mastery of a dominant language often grants individuals access to higher education and economic opportunities. For instance, English proficiency in global business settings can elevate one's career prospects, enabling people from diverse backgrounds to enter international markets.
Cultural Identity and Preservation: Indigenous and minority languages reinforce cultural heritage and community bonds. When communities speak and promote their native languages, they maintain traditions, values, and histories that might otherwise be erased. The revival of the Māori language in New Zealand is a powerful example of language revitalization empowering indigenous identity.
Political and Social Influence: Rhetoric and persuasive speech play crucial roles in shaping public opinion and social movements. Leaders who articulate their visions effectively can mobilize societies toward change. Martin Luther King Jr.’s "I Have a Dream" speech exemplifies how powerful language can inspire movements for justice.
Language as a Means of Marginalization
Exclusion from Opportunities: Linguistic discrimination occurs when individuals are denied employment or education due to their accent or fluency level. For example, speakers of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) often face prejudice in professional settings, limiting access to upward mobility.
Colonialism and Language Suppression: Historically, colonial powers imposed their languages on indigenous populations, marginalizing native tongues and cultures. The forced adoption of European languages in Africa and South Asia displaced local dialects, reducing their speakers’ cultural and political influence.
Gender and Language Bias: Language can reinforce gender hierarchies through sexist expressions or societal norms about speech. In some cultures, assertive speech from women is discouraged, reinforcing power imbalances. Moreover, the absence of gender-inclusive language in legal and social discourse can marginalize non-binary individuals.
Language remains a fundamental instrument in shaping social structures, reinforcing power dynamics, and defining individual and collective identity. Understanding these functions allows societies to create more inclusive linguistic policies and cultural practices.
Q3. What is the role of language policy in educational planning? Discuss how language policies can affect access to education and societal equity.
What is the role of language policy in educational planning?
Medium of Instruction: Language policies determine which languages are used in schools. This affects how students grasp concepts, especially when instruction is in their mother tongue versus a second or foreign language.
Access and Inclusivity: A well-planned language policy ensures inclusivity by considering the linguistic diversity of a country or region. It can help bridge gaps for marginalized communities and enhance equity in education.
National Identity and Cultural Preservation: Language policies often reflect national priorities, supporting indigenous languages to preserve cultural heritage or promoting a common language to foster unity.
Global Competitiveness: Some policies emphasize teaching global languages (like English, French, or Mandarin) to prepare students for international opportunities while balancing local linguistic needs.
Curriculum Development and Assessment: Policies shape curriculum design and assessments, influencing how subjects are taught and tested. They determine bilingual or multilingual education strategies.
Educational Outcomes: Research shows that students learn best in their first language before transitioning to a second language. Policies based on this understanding help improve literacy rates and comprehension.
How can language policies affect access to education and societal equity?
Access to Education:
Language Barrier in Learning: When the language of instruction differs from a student's home language, it can create barriers to understanding, leading to lower academic performance and disengagement from education.
Marginalization of Linguistic Minorities: Policies favoring dominant languages can exclude speakers of minority languages from quality education, reducing their chances of upward social mobility.
Multilingual Education Benefits: Inclusive language policies that support bilingual or multilingual education help students retain their native language while gaining proficiency in an official language, improving comprehension and cognitive development.
Societal Equity:
Economic Opportunities: Access to education in dominant languages often translates to better employment prospects. If language policies restrict certain groups from learning these languages, it widens economic disparities.
Political Participation: Language policies influence civic engagement. If official documents, government proceedings, and voting materials are only available in dominant languages, linguistic minorities may struggle to participate in governance.
Cultural Preservation: Policies that support the use of indigenous and minority languages in education help preserve cultural identities and prevent linguistic erosion.
Finding Balance:
A well-designed language policy fosters inclusion and equity, ensuring that all individuals have equal opportunities regardless of their linguistic background. This may involve integrating multilingual education models, providing language support programs, and ensuring fair representation of all linguistic groups in governance.
Q4. Compare and contrast the Interactionist Theory of Language Acquisition and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory, focusing on their implications for language learning.
Interactionist Theory of Language Acquisition: This theory integrates both cognitive and social aspects of language learning, suggesting that children acquire language through interaction with caregivers and their environment. While children have an innate ability for language, exposure to social interactions refines and develops their linguistic skills. Key figures include Jerome Bruner and cognitive psychologists who emphasize scaffolding, where caregivers adjust their speech to support the child’s understanding.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Focuses on the role of social interactions and culture in shaping learning, asserting that cognitive development, including language acquisition, occurs first on a social level before becoming internalized. According to Vygotsky, More Knowledgeable Others (MKOs), such as parents, teachers, or peers, guide learners within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), helping them acquire language skills beyond their independent capabilities.
Comparison and Contrast:
Origin: The Interactionist Theory blends cognitive and social elements, while Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory is firmly rooted in sociocultural perspectives.
Key Figures: Interactionist Theory incorporates ideas from Bruner and Piaget (partially), whereas Vygotsky himself developed the Sociocultural Theory.
Mechanism: The Interactionist Theory emphasizes both innate abilities and interaction, while Vygotsky argues that learning is first social before becoming internalized.
Role of Interaction: Interactionist Theory suggests that caregivers shape language through conversation, while Sociocultural Theory highlights guidance by MKOs in structured learning environments.
Implications: Interactionist Theory encourages child-led conversation and scaffolding, while Vygotsky’s theory stresses structured learning environments and cultural influences.
Both theories underscore the social nature of language acquisition, but while Interactionist Theory blends innate abilities with interaction, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory places culture and social guidance at the center of learning. Educators and caregivers can leverage both approaches by encouraging scaffolding and creating a rich interactive environment.
Q5. Interview a speech therapist or read a case study about a person with aphasia. Based on your findings, answer the following:
a. What type of aphasia did the individual have, and what were the main symptoms?
b. How did the condition affect their daily communication and social interactions?
c. What methods or strategies were used to help the individual improve their communication abilities?
a. What type of aphasia did the individual have, and what were the main symptoms?
Imagine an individual who has experienced a stroke affecting the front left portion of their brain. This area, known as Broca's area, is crucial for speech production. As a result, this individual might develop Broca's aphasia (also known as expressive aphasia or non-fluent aphasia).
The main symptoms often include:
- Non-fluent speech: Speech is slow, effortful, and halting. They might produce short phrases or single words.
- Telegraphic speech: They tend to omit grammatical words like "is," "and," and "the," resulting in sentences that sound like telegrams (e.g., "Walk dog").
- Difficulty with articulation: Forming words can be challenging, and speech may sound slurred or distorted.
- Relatively good comprehension: While they might struggle to produce language, their ability to understand what others are saying is often better preserved compared to their expressive abilities.
- Awareness of their difficulties: Individuals with Broca's aphasia are often aware of their communication challenges, which can lead to frustration.
b. How did the condition affect their daily communication and social interactions?
Broca's aphasia can profoundly impact daily communication and social interactions. For our hypothetical individual:
- Expressing basic needs: Simple requests like asking for water or indicating pain can become significant hurdles. They might rely on gestures or pointing, which can be frustrating for both the individual and their communication partners.
- Participating in conversations: Engaging in back-and-forth dialogue becomes difficult due to the effort required to produce speech. They might feel unable to contribute their thoughts or opinions, leading to withdrawal from conversations.
- Maintaining relationships: Social interactions can become strained. Friends and family might struggle to understand them, leading to feelings of isolation and loneliness for the individual with aphasia.
- Returning to work or hobbies: Activities that require verbal communication, such as phone calls, meetings, or even casual conversations with colleagues, can become impossible or highly challenging, potentially impacting their professional and personal life.
- Emotional impact: The inability to express themselves can lead to significant emotional distress, including frustration, anger, sadness, and a loss of self-esteem.
c. What methods or strategies were used to help the individual improve their communication abilities?
Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) employ various methods and strategies tailored to the individual's specific needs and the severity of their aphasia. For someone with Broca's aphasia, some common approaches include:
- Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT): This technique uses the musical elements of speech (intonation, rhythm, and stress) to facilitate verbal expression. Often, individuals can sing words or phrases more easily than they can say them.
- Constraint-Induced Language Therapy (CILT): This therapy encourages the individual to use their impaired verbal communication by restricting the use of non-verbal communication methods like gestures. It aims to "force" the use of spoken language.
- Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA): This strategy helps individuals access and retrieve words by focusing on their semantic features (e.g., category, function, properties). For example, to retrieve the word "apple," the therapist might ask questions like "What category is it in?", "What do you do with it?", "What color is it?".
- Visual Communication Aids: These can include picture boards, communication books, or electronic devices that allow the individual to point to pictures or symbols to express their needs and ideas.
- Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) devices: For more severe cases, technology-based AAC devices that generate speech based on typed words or selected symbols might be used.
- Repetition and Modeling: The therapist might model correct pronunciations and sentence structures, encouraging the individual to repeat them.
- Cueing Techniques: Providing verbal, visual, or tactile cues can help trigger word retrieval. For example, giving the first sound of a word or showing a picture.
- Focus on Functional Communication: Therapy often prioritizes practicing communication skills needed for everyday situations, such as ordering food, asking for directions, or participating in simple conversations.
- Support and Education for Communication Partners: Educating family members and caregivers on effective communication strategies is crucial. This includes speaking slowly and clearly, using short sentences, giving the individual time to respond, and using visual aids.
It's important to remember that recovery from aphasia is a process that varies greatly from person to person. Therapy is often intensive and long-term, requiring patience, perseverance, and a collaborative effort between the individual, their family, and the speech-language pathologist.
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